The enactment of the medium of instruction policy in multilingual Nepal: Shapers, interplays, and tensions

This thesis describes an investigation of the enactment of mediums of instruction, the factors shaping them, their relationships, and tensions in the multilingual contexts of Nepal’s secondary schools as a qualitative exploratory case study. Data were gathered from multiple sources: in-depth interviews with municipal level policymakers, headteachers, and teachers; separate focus group discussions with students and their parents; classroom observations of teachers; and case observations of three purposively selected public secondary schools in two provinces. The data were analyzed inductively, drawing on critical language policy approaches, such as historical-structural and nexus analyses. This approach provided a solid basis for understanding the historicity of language policies, the enactment of medium of instruction, and the interconnected relationships (interplays) and tensions among factors shaping the said policy in Nepal. The findings reveal that Nepal’s language-in-education policies have been influenced by societal reforms (both intentional and accidental) at the local, national, and global levels. Diverse forms of medium of instruction policies were put into practice: dual English and Nepali, monolingual Nepali-only, and monolingual English-only. Nonetheless, English as a medium of instruction that beings as early as the outset of formal schooling was the most sought-after medium in school contexts, primarily motivated by the potential material, social, and educational benefits wrought by the world’s lingual franca. However, English as a medium of instruction, advanced by the forces of globalization and neoliberalism, has come into tension with Nepali medium instruction and mother-tongue (ethnic/indigenous languages) education, which in turn have been promoted by the forces of nationalism, ethnic identity that relates to Nepal’s official policy of multilingualism. Amidst this tension, ethnic/indigenous languages in education have been systematically restricted and even delegitimized in the education system. Although the policy, beginning in the 1990s, opened spaces for the minoritized or lesser taught languages, the education practices continued to promote English and Nepali, which created tensions between macro-level and grassroots-level policies. This study thus further substantiates theoretical arguments related to ‘practice as policy’ and ‘practice informing policy’. Recent political and educational reforms have been intended to bring previously banned or lesser taught languages into the education system (through advocacy, preparation of textbooks and other learning materials). Yet, the English and Nepali language supremacy has continued, thereby excluding Nepal’s more than 129 ethnic/indigenous languages from schools. The present study reveals an unstoppable drive toward educating in the English medium, shaped by five major factors: aspirations for life chances, construction of individual and group identity, the role of state and non-state actors, the diversity context, and globalization. It was found that relationships among these (and several other) factors (and sub-factors) have been interwoven into practice (i.e., a nexus of practice) to produce a strong force of English as a key capital towards social mobility and contributed to reproducing deficit ideologies towards the ethnic/indigenous languages. These relationships, in turn, have inspired schools to enact (or imagine to enact) English medium instruction, which has been enabled by their silencing (or sometimes banning) of languages other than English and Nepali. As such, this thesis appeals to language policy scholars to investigate language policy and planning issues beyond linguocentrism and consider the broader social and political issues, such as caste/ethnicity and social class, in which medium of instruction policies are intricately embedded. Such approaches are crucial for thoroughly investigating the multilayered and multifaceted process of language policies. All rights reserved.