Metalinguistic skills were uniquely linked to Chinese word reading and writing among first and second language learners

This cross-sectional study examined the associations of orthographic knowledge, phonological awareness, and morphological awareness with Chinese word reading and writing among first and second language learners of Chinese. It also examined whether these associations differed across these two groups of children. Participants were 480 Chinese children (mean age = 58.26 months; 50% of them were girls) and 347 ethnic minority children (mean age = 57.59 months; 54% of them were girls) from 32 kindergartens located in Hong Kong, China. During structured interviews, children completed tasks on metalinguistic skills and word reading and writing. Research Findings: Multigroup path analyses indicated that, controlling for child gender and age, orthographic knowledge, phonological awareness, and morphological awareness were uniquely associated with Chinese word reading and writing among Chinese and ethnic minority children. However, phonological awareness was more strongly associated with Chinese word reading among Chinese children and morphological awareness was more strongly associated with Chinese word reading among EM children. Practice or Policy: Findings highlighted the distinct roles of three interlinked processes–graphic, phonological, and semantic–in understanding the learning of Chinese as a first and a second language, pointing to the potential utility of helping young children recognize and produce Chinese words by understanding their meanings and forms. Copyright © 2025 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.