A latent profile analysis of Informal Digital Learning of English: Emotion regulation strategies as predictors and willingness to communicate as outcomes

While Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE) is gaining research attention, few studies adopt a person-centered approach to capture its complexity. This study employed latent profile analysis (LPA) to explore receptive and productive IDLE patterns among Chinese undergraduate English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Building on the Process Model of Emotion Regulation (PMER) and the Willingness to Communicate (WTC) model, the study examined how emotion regulation strategies (i.e., cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) predicted profile membership and how each profile was associated with learners’ WTC in digital and non-digital contexts. LPA of 829 IDLE participants (IDLErs) identified three profiles: Moderate IDLErs, Active IDLErs, and Passive IDLErs. Cognitive reappraisal significantly predicted learners’ profile membership in all three profiles, with more frequent use of this strategy linked to more active profiles. Expressive suppression significantly distinguished Passive IDLErs from Active IDLErs, with Passive IDLErs showing lower levels. However, it did not differentiate Moderate IDLErs from the other two groups. Active IDLErs reported the highest WTC in digital and non-digital contexts, followed by Moderate IDLErs, with Passive IDLErs exhibiting the lowest levels. Further implications were discussed regarding the potential of integrating ERS training into IDLE interventions to promote WTC across contexts. Copyright © 2025 Elsevier Ltd.